Unit II — On the Language of Literature
Syllabus Coverage: Literary Language; Foregrounding, Deviation & Style; Views of Critics (Aristotle, Wordsworth, Shelley, Shklovsky); Levels of Language (Segmental, Supra-Segmental, Syntactic); Themes, Motifs & Interpretations; The Message of a Literary Work; Effects & Mediums of Messages; Reading Literature Critically; Citation; Homer’s Iliad; Shakespeare
References:
- Unit 2 Lecture Slides — On the Language of Literature
- Robert Burton (1970) — Categories of Literature Study
- Margaret Walker (1966) — Key Characteristics in Reading Literature
- Northrop Frye (1960) — Five Modes of Literature
Table of Contents
1 — Literary Language: A Unique Experimentation
2 — Views of Major Critics on Literary Language
3 — Divisions of Language in Literature
4 — Themes, Motifs & Interpretations
- 4.1 Surface Content vs Deeper Meaning
- 4.2 Theme — Definition & Types
- 4.3 The Message of a Literary Work
5 — Effects & Mediums of Messages from Literature
6 — Reading Literature Critically
- 6.1 Burton’s Three Categories
- 6.2 Frye’s Five Modes of Literature
- 6.3 Walker’s Nine Points of Agreement
- 6.4 Abilities Needed to Study Literature
- 6.5 Aspects That Need Attention
7 — Citation & Its Significance
8 — Homer’s Iliad
9 — William Shakespeare
10 — Summary Table & Practice Questions
1 — Literary Language: A Unique Experimentation
1.1 What Is Literary Language?
Literary Language is a style or form of language used in literary writing. It is distinct from everyday language in several critical ways:
- Literary writers foreground their texts — they make the language itself noticeable, drawing attention to HOW something is said, not just WHAT is said
- The language of literature embodies a significant aspect of human experience
- It has a pattern of verbal substructure much more carefully modified than that of everyday language
- It is this language that expresses the meaning of literature
Key Terms:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Foregrounding | Making the language itself prominent or noticeable — drawing the reader’s attention to the form of expression rather than just the content |
| Deviation | Departing from the norms of everyday language — using unusual word order, invented words, or unconventional constructions |
| Creativity | The ability to use language in novel and imaginative ways that go beyond standard communication |
| Style | The distinctive manner in which a writer uses language — word choice, sentence structure, tone, rhythm |
| Aesthetics | The appreciation of beauty and artistic quality in language and literature |
Why does literary language matter? Because literature doesn’t just communicate information — it creates an experience. The way something is written is inseparable from what it means. Change the language, and you change the meaning.
1.2 Questions Arising Through Literary Language
The study of literary language raises fundamental questions:
- Does literature refer to or correspond to something outside texts?
- What sort of “truth” does literature aim towards?
- What mental process — the writer’s or reader’s — contributes to the production of literary texts?
- To what extent are texts “autonomous”? What are their formal and structural properties?
- Is a text’s structure determinate or indeterminate?
- Is literature a part of history? Can we know what social, economic, geographical processes determine or condition literary texts?
- Is literature primarily a form of moral experience? Do writers’ moral ideas or ideologies (conscious or unconscious) determine the nature of their writing?
No single answer exists for these questions. Different literary theories (formalism, structuralism, postmodernism, Marxism, feminism, etc.) offer different answers. The humanities encourage you to engage with the debate, not to settle for easy answers.
2 — Views of Major Critics on Literary Language
2.1 Aristotle
Aristotle (Poetics): Language is distinguished and out of the ordinary when it makes use of:
- Exotic expressions (non-standard words)
- Metaphor
- Lengthening (extending words or expressions beyond their normal form)
- Anything contrary to current usage
Key Principle: Any deviation from the use of ordinary words will give language a non-prosaic (non-ordinary, literary) appearance.
In Simple Terms: Aristotle says literary language is language that breaks the rules of ordinary speech. When a writer uses unusual words, metaphors, or unexpected constructions, the language stops being “transparent” (where you see through words to their meaning) and becomes “opaque” (where you notice the words themselves). This opacity is what makes language literary.
2.2 William Wordsworth
William Wordsworth (Preface to Lyrical Ballads):
A poet should write poetry “in a selection of language really used by men” — but at the same time, “throw over them a certain colouring of imagination whereby ordinary things should be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect.”
Breaking Down Wordsworth’s View:
| Element | Explanation |
|---|---|
| “Language really used by men” | Poetry should NOT use overly artificial, pompous language — it should be grounded in how people actually speak |
| “Selection of” | Not ALL everyday language — a deliberate choice of the best, most expressive parts |
| “Colouring of imagination” | The poet adds an imaginative quality that transforms ordinary language |
| “Ordinary things in an unusual aspect” | The goal is to make readers see familiar things freshly — as if for the first time |
Wordsworth’s Balance: Real language + Imagination = Poetry. Neither purely artificial nor crudely ordinary.
2.3 Percy B. Shelley
Percy B. Shelley: The language of literature overcomes the barriers of customary perception and enables us to see some aspect of the world freshly, or even for the first time.
What Shelley Means: We go through daily life on autopilot — we stop truly seeing the world around us because everything is familiar. Literature defamiliarizes the world — it strips away the film of habit and familiarity, letting us perceive things as if encountering them for the first time.
Example: You may have seen rain thousands of times. But when a poet describes rain as “the sky weeping silver threads onto the wounded earth,” you suddenly see rain differently.
2.4 Viktor Shklovsky
Viktor Shklovsky (Russian Formalist): Poetry is “attenuated, tortuous speech” — speech that has been stretched, twisted, and made difficult.
| Type | Character |
|---|---|
| Poetic Speech | Formed speech — deliberately shaped, structured, and made unfamiliar |
| Prose | Ordinary speech — economical, easy, and proper |
Shklovsky’s Key Concept — Ostranenie (Defamiliarization): Shklovsky argued that the purpose of art is to make things “strange” — to force us to see them in new, unfamiliar ways. Everyday language is designed for efficiency (getting the message across quickly). Literary language deliberately slows down perception, making us linger over words and see the world anew.
Summary: Four Views Compared
| Critic | Core Idea |
|---|---|
| Aristotle | Literary language deviates from ordinary language through exotic words, metaphor, and unconventional usage |
| Wordsworth | Poetry uses a selection of real language with an added “colouring of imagination” to present ordinary things unusually |
| Shelley | Literature overcomes barriers of customary perception, enabling us to see the world freshly |
| Shklovsky | Poetic speech is “formed” and “tortuous” — it defamiliarizes the world by making language deliberately unfamiliar |
3 — Divisions of Language in Literature
Contemporary literary theory divides the language of literature into three levels:
3.1 Segmental Level
The segmental level deals with the basic building blocks of language:
| Sub-Level | What It Studies | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Phonemic | Patterns of speech sounds | Alliteration, onomatopoeia, sound symbolism, meter, rhyme |
| Morphemic | Words and their parts — prefixes and suffixes | un-happy, re-write, happi-ness |
| Lexical | Dictional aspects — word choice (diction) | Using “luminous” instead of “bright”; “perambulate” instead of “walk” |
Examples at the Phonemic Level:
| Device | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Alliteration | Repetition of initial consonant sounds | “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers” |
| Onomatopoeia | Words that imitate the sounds they describe | buzz, hiss, splash, murmur, crack |
| Sound Symbolism | Sounds that suggest meaning beyond the word itself | Hard consonants (k, t, p) suggest sharpness; soft sounds (l, m, n) suggest gentleness |
| Meter | The rhythmic pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables | Iambic pentameter: da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM |
| Rhyme | Repetition of similar sounds at the ends of words/lines | cat/hat, love/dove, moon/June |
3.2 Supra-Segmental Level
The supra-segmental level deals with features that extend beyond individual sound segments — features layered on top of the basic sounds:
| Feature | Definition | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Stress | The degree of emphasis given to a sound or syllable in speech (also called lexical stress or word stress) | Changing stress can change meaning: re-CORD (verb) vs RE-cord (noun) |
| Juncture | The manner of transition between two successive syllables in speech | Helps listeners distinguish between identical sound sequences with different meanings: “a name” vs “an aim” |
| Intonation | The melody or music of language — the rise and fall of a speaker’s voice | A complex system of meaning communicated through pitch patterns; a rising intonation can turn a statement into a question |
Think of it this way:
- Segmental = the individual letters/sounds (like notes in music)
- Supra-segmental = the rhythm, emphasis, and melody layered on top (like the tempo, dynamics, and expression in music)
The same sequence of notes can sound completely different depending on how they’re played — similarly, the same words can mean completely different things depending on stress, juncture, and intonation.
3.3 Syntactic Level
The syntactic level deals with how words combine into larger structures:
| Feature | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Combination | How words, phrases, clauses, and sentences are put together | Simple vs complex sentences; word order variations |
| Paradigmatic Relations | Vertical (mental) relations between a word in a sentence and other words that could substitute for it | “The black cat” — “black” could be replaced by “white,” “grey,” “small” (words from the same paradigm set) |
| Syntagmatic Relations | Horizontal relations that determine the possibilities of putting words in sequence | “abstract–concept”, “edit–film”, “team–sport” — words that frequently occur together |
| Surface Structure | The actual arrangement of words as they appear in a sentence | “The dog chased the cat” |
| Deep Structure | The underlying meaning or logical relations expressed by the sentence | The meaning that “the dog” is the agent and “the cat” is the object |
| Kernel Sentence | A simple construction with only one verb; active and declarative | “I wrote a letter”; “She cried”; “We bought a car” |
Paradigmatic vs Syntagmatic — Easy Way to Remember:
- Paradigmatic = Vertical = Substitution (what COULD go in this slot; e.g., black responds with white)
- Syntagmatic = Horizontal = Combination (what words naturally go TOGETHER; e.g., black magic, black tie)
4 — Themes, Motifs & Interpretations
4.1 Surface Content vs Deeper Meaning
| Level | What It Includes | Who Reads at This Level |
|---|---|---|
| Surface Content | The plot with its characters, actions, and setting — concrete individuals, situations, and events | Casual readers who read only to learn “what happens next” |
| Deeper Meaning | Themes, messages, symbols, and implications that lie beneath the surface | Skilled readers who discover what lies beyond the surface content |
Key Insight: Surface content may entertain and keep readers curious. But skilled readers discover what lies beyond the surface — the themes, messages, and deeper significance that give literature its lasting power.
4.2 Theme — Definition & Types
Theme is considered one of the five fundamental components of fiction (along with plot, character, setting, and style).
- Themes explore historically common or cross-culturally recognizable ideas
- They are almost always implied rather than stated explicitly
- Interpretations of the same theme may vary from individual to individual
- The story may differ, the characters might change, but the basic themes in literature have remained more or less the same throughout history
| Type | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Major Theme | An issue the author returns to time and again — becomes one of the most important topics in the story | Love vs duty in Romeo and Juliet; the corrupting nature of power in Macbeth |
| Minor Theme | Issues that may appear from time to time but are not the central focus | Class differences in Pride and Prejudice (major theme is love/pride, minor theme is class) |
4.3 The Message of a Literary Work
| Concept | Definition | Relationship |
|---|---|---|
| Theme | The problem which the writer raises | Foundation — what the author writes about |
| Message | The most important idea that the author expresses in the process of developing the theme | Conclusion — what the author says about the theme |
The theme is organically connected with the author’s message.
Critical Points About the Message:
- The message is generally expressed implicitly (indirectly), NOT explicitly
- It has a complex analytical character, created by the interaction of numerous implications from different elements of the literary work
- The message is NOT something stated in a particular sentence and easily located — it is something comprehended upon reflection
- An important distinguishing feature of literary texts is that they operate NOT through direct statement but through indirect allusion, understatement, implication, and even concealment
- Literary texts often veil the “truth” they seek to convey — enhancing its attractiveness and endowing it with a sense of mystery and transcendental value
5 — Effects & Mediums of Messages from Literature
5.1 How Literature Persuades
Literature, much like modern advertisement, is often an attempt at persuasion which operates on subliminal levels and artfully instills its message by concealing it under a cover of fictional situations and devices affecting the audience on:
- Emotional levels
- Intuitive levels
- Experiential levels
- Instinctive levels
How a story persuades without stating its message: A story may seek to promote a particular view of the world NOT by flatly stating it, but by constructing a set of emotionally charged and seemingly “realistic” situations leading to an almost unavoidable, but always unstated, conclusion — the story’s intended moral.
Example: George Orwell’s Animal Farm never says “totalitarian communism is dangerous.” Instead, through the story of animals overthrowing their farmer and then being oppressed by the pigs, the reader arrives at this conclusion naturally.
Literary Meaning is Multi-Layered:
- Goes far beyond the mere literal or “surface” level of signification
- Literary texts distinguish themselves by the subtleties and intricacies of their many levels of meaning
- The actual “meaning” is almost always implicit in the fabric of the work’s devices
- Meaning must be determined through a complete evaluation of: rhetoric, figures of speech, images, symbols, allusions, connotations, suggestions, and implications
5.2 Mediums of Conveying Messages
Literature uses several specific techniques to convey its messages:
A. Implication
Implication is the suggestion that is not expressed directly but understood. It may be conveyed through:
- Parallelism
- Contrast
- Recurrence of events or situations
- Artistic details
- Symbols
- Arrangement of plot structure
B. Parallelism
Parallelism invites the reader to compare actions. Events which begin and end a story sometimes parallel each other. This circling of the action back to its beginning implies that nothing has changed — and this may be the whole point.
Example — Theodore Dreiser’s An American Tragedy: The closing scene returns the reader to the opening scene. This circling of actions suggests and emphasizes that nothing has improved — Clyde’s nephew Russell starts his way to the American Dream that is doomed to become his American tragedy.
C. Recurrence (Repetition)
Recurrence (or repetition) is another means of conveying implication. Repeated linguistic elements may include:
- Stylistic devices
- Emotionally coloured words
- Even neutral words — which, when repeated, acquire special semantic relevance
D. Symbol
When an artistic detail is repeated several times and is associated with a broader concept than the original, it develops into a symbol.
Symbol = a word (or the object it represents) that stands for a concept broader than its literal sense — something concrete and material standing for something immaterial and more abstract.
A symbol is a metaphoric expression of the concept it stands for.
Examples of Symbols in Literature:
| Symbol | Literal Meaning | Symbolic Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| The Green Light (The Great Gatsby) | A light at the end of Daisy’s dock | Gatsby’s dreams, hope, and the unattainable American Dream |
| The Scarlet Letter (Hawthorne) | The letter “A” for adultery | Initially shame; transforms into a symbol of strength and identity |
| The Conch (Lord of the Flies) | A seashell used to call meetings | Order, civilization, and democratic power |
E. Presupposition
Presupposition is a means of conveying special implication. It is a characteristic feature of contemporary fiction to begin a story at a point where certain things are already taken for granted — the reader is expected to infer background information without being told explicitly.
F. The Title
The title is the first element to catch the reader’s eye, but its meaning and function may be determined only retrospectively — when related to the whole book. A title can acquire a totally different meaning, contrary to what its components generally mean.
Example — Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter: Initially, the title has a derogatory connotation (since the letter “A” stands for adultery). But when related to the protagonist’s fate in the novel, it acquires a positive meaning — representing her strength, endurance, and moral growth.
G. Objective vs Author’s Message
| Type | Definition |
|---|---|
| Author’s Message | What the author intends to communicate through the work |
| Objective Message | The final conclusion that the reader draws from their own analysis and response to the story AND from the author’s implied message |
The objective message may be BROADER than the author’s message, because it is based on more profound historical experience. Readers in different eras may discover meaning that the author never intended.
6 — Reading Literature Critically
6.1 Burton's Three Categories
Robert Burton (1970) evolved three categories as a basis for planning sequence in literature study:
| Category | Focus | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Substance | Content & Ideas | Not only surface knowledge of a selection but also the student’s perception of “themes and ideas that are developed or dramatized about human experience” |
| 2. Mode | Literary Type | Follows Frye’s five modes: mythic, romantic, high mimetic, low mimetic, and ironic |
| 3. Form | Genre & Structure | The various genres and sub-genres of literature as well as certain elements of structure (point of view, setting, dialogue) and certain devices (metaphor, symbol) common to more than one genre |
6.2 Frye's Five Modes of Literature
Northrop Frye (1960) divides his study of tragic, comic, and thematic literature into five “modes”, each identified with a specific literary epoch:
| Mode | Hero’s Power | Literary Epoch | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Mythic | Hero is a divine being — superior in kind to both other characters and the environment | Ancient myths & sacred texts | Greek gods, Hindu epics |
| 2. Romantic | Hero is superior in degree to other characters and the environment — possess extraordinary abilities, but is still human | Medieval romances, fairy tales | King Arthur, Beowulf |
| 3. High Mimetic | Hero is superior to other characters in degree but NOT to the environment — a leader among ordinary people | Renaissance tragedy, epic | Shakespeare’s kings, Milton’s Paradise Lost |
| 4. Low Mimetic | Hero is on the same level as the reader — one of us | Realistic novel, comedy | Jane Austen characters, Dickens |
| 5. Ironic | Hero is inferior to the reader — we look down on scenes of bondage, frustration, or absurdity | Modern & postmodern literature | Kafka’s The Trial, Beckett’s Waiting for Godot |
How to Remember the Five Modes: Think of the hero’s power decreasing as we move through literary history:
- God → Superhero → King → Ordinary Person → Anti-hero/Victim
6.3 Walker's Nine Points of Agreement
Margaret Walker (1966) identified nine basic points of agreement among teachers and critics who advocate teaching the structure of literature:
- The study of literature should include a careful analysis of the work itself to see what structural relationships exist
- The investigation of structure should be inductive (law-based, building from particulars to generalizations)
- The structure of literature is what gives it unity or enables it to have a unifying effect
- Structure is the overall pattern of relationships that holds the parts together
- The study of structure involves form AND content
- The study of structure should begin with a view of the whole
- The study of structure facilitates understanding and interpretation of literature
- Understanding structure broadens literary appreciation — enabling readers to appreciate literature not only for its personal appeal but also for the craftsmanship involved
- The study of structure facilitates transfer of general principles pertinent to literature, composition, and investigation — understanding how writers combine parts to produce wholes helps students improve their own writing
6.4 Abilities Needed to Study Literature
According to Robert Burton, three sets of abilities form a hierarchy of skills involving the reader’s intellectual and emotional reactions:
| Level | Ability | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | Imaginative Entry (Empathy) | The most fundamental — without it, the student is NOT reading literature. This leads to identification by the reader of “correlative experience” — connecting the text to one’s own life |
| 2nd | Perception of Meaning / Central Purpose | Helps develop the method of hypothesis — forming ideas about what the text means and testing them as you read. Some hypotheses are tested within a few pages; others only after completing the whole work |
| 3rd | Perception of Artistic Unity & Significance | The highest level — seeing how all parts of the work fit together into a unified whole and understanding the significance of that unity |
Key Point: These abilities form a hierarchy — you MUST have empathy (Level 1) before you can perceive meaning (Level 2), and you must perceive meaning before you can grasp artistic unity (Level 3). A reader who lacks empathy cannot engage with literature at all.
6.5 Aspects That Need Attention
When studying literature critically, pay attention to:
- The monotone of the mind’s ear — the internal voice with which you “hear” the text
- Pause, rhythm, and gesture — the rhythmic qualities of the language
- Lighting and sound — the atmosphere and sensory details created by the text
- Symbolic foreshadowings — hints and clues that point to future events or deeper meanings
- The director’s interpretation — how different readers/critics can interpret the same text differently (just as different directors interpret the same play differently)
7 — Citation & Its Significance
7.1 What Is a Citation?
A citation is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from another source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find the location details of that source on the reference or Works Cited page.
- A citation must include a set of parentheses — without them, you do not have a proper in-text citation
- Failure to cite properly can result in being charged with plagiarism
Example of an In-Text Citation:
Due to needed upgrades to the Indianapolis Zoo exhibits, their only polar bear will relocate to Detroit (Ryckahert & Lange, 2016).
7.2 When to Cite
You must cite when:
| Situation | Example |
|---|---|
| You use words, thoughts, or ideas of someone else | Quoting a scholar’s argument |
| You directly quote | Using someone’s exact words in quotation marks |
| You paraphrase | Restating someone’s ideas in your own words |
| You use or reference an idea or thought that has already been expressed | Referring to a well-known theory |
| You make any reference to another source | Mentioning data, statistics, or findings |
| Another’s ideas have influenced your writing and research | Building on previous scholarship |
Why Cite?
- To give credit to the source authors
- To help your audience/reader find out more about your research
- To strengthen your work by providing outside support to your ideas
- To help readers distinguish your ideas from those of your sources — this actually emphasizes the originality of your own work
- To avoid failing a paper, a course, or being sued in the real world
8 — Homer’s Iliad
8.1 Who Was Homer?
Homer (born c. 8th century BCE) was a Greek poet credited as the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey — two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature.
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Era | 8th century BCE |
| Nationality | Greek |
| Major Works | Iliad and Odyssey |
| Language | Homeric Greek (Epic Greek) — a literary language mixing features of Ionic and Aeolic dialects |
| Transmission | Most researchers believe the poems were originally transmitted orally |
| Cultural Impact | Shaped aspects of ancient Greek culture and education, fostering ideals of heroism, glory, and honour |
How Others Saw Homer:
- Plato: Homer was simply the one who “has taught Greece”
- Virgil: Referred to Homer as “Poet sovereign” — king of all poets
- Alexander Pope: Acknowledged that Homer has always been considered “the greatest of poets”
From antiquity to the present day, Homeric epics have inspired famous works of literature, music, art, and film.
8.2 The *Iliad* — Overview
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Title | The Iliad (from Ilion, an ancient name for Troy) |
| Type | Epic poem |
| Attribution | Homer |
| Divisions | 24 books |
| Meter | Dactylic hexameter |
| Length | 15,693 lines (in the most widely accepted version) |
| Setting | Towards the end of the Trojan War — a ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Mycenaean Greek states |
| Time Span | Depicts significant events in the siege’s final weeks |
| Central Conflict | A fierce quarrel between King Agamemnon and celebrated warrior Achilles |
| Significance | Often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature; central part of the Epic Cycle |
Brief Plot Summary: The Iliad begins with Achilles, the greatest Greek warrior, withdrawing from battle after a dispute with Agamemnon (their commander) over a captive woman. Without Achilles, the Greeks suffer heavy losses. Achilles’ beloved companion Patroclus enters battle wearing Achilles’ armour and is killed by the Trojan prince Hector. Consumed by grief and rage, Achilles returns to battle, kills Hector, and drags his body around Troy. The poem ends with Hector’s funeral, foreshadowing the eventual fall of Troy.
Central Themes: Honour (timē), glory (kleos), mortality, the futility of war, the wrath of Achilles, the relationship between gods and humans.
9 — William Shakespeare
9.1 Life & Works
William Shakespeare (1564–1616) was an English playwright, poet, and actor.
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Born | 1564, Stratford-upon-Avon, England |
| Died | 1616 |
| Nicknames | “The Bard of Avon” or simply “The Bard”; England’s national poet |
| Status | Widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist |
| Active Period | Produced most known works between 1589 and 1613 |
| Total Output | ~39 plays, 154 sonnets, 3 long narrative poems, and other verses |
9.2 Major Works
Shakespeare’s career had three major phases:
| Phase | Period | Genre | Notable Works |
|---|---|---|---|
| Early | ~1589–1600 | Comedies & Histories | A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Henry V, Richard III |
| Middle | ~1600–1608 | Tragedies | Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth |
| Late | ~1608–1613 | Tragicomedies / Romances | The Tempest, The Winter’s Tale, Cymbeline |
Why Shakespeare in a Humanities Course? Shakespeare represents the pinnacle of what the humanities seek to achieve: through mastery of language, deep understanding of human nature, and artistic brilliance, he created works that transcend time, culture, and nationality. His plays explore universal themes — love, power, jealousy, ambition, mortality, justice — that remain as relevant today as they were 400 years ago.
10 — Summary & Practice Questions
Summary Table
| Topic | Key Points |
|---|---|
| Literary Language | Distinct from everyday language; foregrounds form; embodies human experience; carefully modified verbal substructure |
| Aristotle | Literary language deviates from ordinary through exotic words, metaphor, and unconventional usage |
| Wordsworth | Poetry = selection of real language + colouring of imagination → ordinary things in unusual aspect |
| Shelley | Literature overcomes barriers of customary perception; fresh seeing |
| Shklovsky | Poetic speech is “formed, tortuous”; defamiliarization (ostranenie) |
| Segmental Level | Phonemic (sounds, rhyme, meter), Morphemic (word parts), Lexical (word choice/diction) |
| Supra-Segmental | Stress (emphasis), Juncture (transitions), Intonation (melody of language) |
| Syntactic Level | Combination; Paradigmatic (substitution) vs Syntagmatic (combination) relations; Surface vs Deep structure; Kernel sentences |
| Theme | Fundamental component of fiction; implied not stated; major vs minor themes |
| Message | Author’s most important idea; expressed implicitly; comprehended upon reflection |
| Literature as Persuasion | Operates on subliminal, emotional, intuitive levels; conceals message under fiction |
| Mediums | Implication, Parallelism, Recurrence, Symbol, Presupposition, Title |
| Burton’s Categories | Substance (content), Mode (literary type), Form (genre/structure) |
| Frye’s Five Modes | Mythic → Romantic → High Mimetic → Low Mimetic → Ironic (hero’s power decreasing) |
| Walker’s 9 Points | Structure gives unity; study involves form+content; begins with whole; facilitates transfer |
| Reading Abilities | Empathy → Perception of Meaning → Perception of Artistic Unity (hierarchy) |
| Citation | Crediting sources; preventing plagiarism; strengthening work; emphasizing originality |
| Homer / Iliad | 8th c. BCE Greek epic; 24 books; dactylic hexameter; Achilles vs Agamemnon; first major European literature |
| Shakespeare | 1564–1616; greatest English writer; 39 plays, 154 sonnets; comedies → tragedies → romances |
Practice Questions & Answers
Short Answer Questions
Q1. Define literary language. How is it different from everyday language?
A1. Literary language is a style or form of language used in literary writing. It differs from everyday language in that it foregrounds the text (draws attention to HOW things are said), uses deviation from ordinary norms (unusual words, metaphor, unconventional constructions), and has a pattern of verbal substructure much more carefully modified than everyday language. While everyday language prioritizes efficiency and clarity, literary language prioritizes experience, beauty, and multi-layered meaning.
Q2. Compare the views of Aristotle and Wordsworth on the language of literature.
A2.
- Aristotle (Poetics): Literary language is “distinguished and out of the ordinary” — it uses exotic expressions, metaphor, lengthening, and anything contrary to current usage. Any deviation from ordinary words gives language a non-prosaic (literary) quality. His emphasis is on difference from normality.
- Wordsworth (Preface to Lyrical Ballads): A poet should write in “a selection of language really used by men” but throw over it “a certain colouring of imagination” to present ordinary things in an unusual aspect. His emphasis is on transformation of the ordinary — using real language, not artificial language, but infusing it with imagination.
- Key Difference: Aristotle favours exotic, unusual language; Wordsworth favours ordinary language made extraordinary through imagination.
Q3. What is Shklovsky’s concept of defamiliarization (ostranenie)? How does it relate to Shelley’s view?
A3. Shklovsky’s ostranenie (defamiliarization) is the idea that the purpose of art is to make things “strange” — to force us to see them in new, unfamiliar ways. Poetic speech is “attenuated, tortuous” (formed, difficult), contrasted with prose which is “ordinary, economical, easy.” Similarly, Shelley argued that literature “overcomes the barriers of customary perception” and enables us to “see some aspect of the world freshly, or even for the first time.” Both thinkers agree that literature’s power lies in breaking through habitual perception — making familiar things seem new and strange.
Q4. Explain the three levels of language in literature.
A4.
- Segmental Level: The basic building blocks — (a) Phonemic: patterns of speech sounds (alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme, meter), (b) Morphemic: words and their parts (prefixes, suffixes), (c) Lexical: word choice/diction.
- Supra-Segmental Level: Features layered above individual sounds — (a) Stress: degree of emphasis on syllables, (b) Juncture: manner of transition between syllables, (c) Intonation: the melody/rise-and-fall of the voice.
- Syntactic Level: How words combine — (a) combination of words/phrases/clauses, (b) Paradigmatic relations (vertical/substitution — what words could replace each other), (c) Syntagmatic relations (horizontal/combination — words that naturally occur together), (d) surface structure vs deep structure, (e) kernel sentences.
Q5. Distinguish between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations with examples.
A5.
- Paradigmatic (Vertical): Mental associations between words that are similar and could substitute for each other in the same slot. Example: In “The ___ cat,” the blank could be filled by “black,” “white,” “grey,” “small” — these form a paradigmatic set. Another example: black responds with white.
- Syntagmatic (Horizontal): Mental associations between words that frequently occur together in sequence. Example: abstract–concept, edit–film, team–sport, black magic, black tie. These words are naturally combined in sequence.
Q6. What is the difference between a theme and a message in literature?
A6. The theme is the problem or topic that the writer raises — what the work is about. The message is the most important idea that the author expresses while developing the theme — what the author is saying about the topic. For example, in Macbeth, the theme is “power and ambition”; the message is “unchecked ambition leads to destruction.” The theme is organically connected with the message, but the message goes further — it expresses the author’s viewpoint and is generally conveyed implicitly, not directly stated.
Q7. How does a symbol develop from an artistic detail? Give an example.
A7. A symbol develops when an artistic detail is repeated several times and becomes associated with a broader concept than its original literal meaning. It evolves from something concrete and material into something representing an immaterial, abstract idea. For example, in Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, the letter “A” initially appears as a mark of shame (adultery). Through repetition and the protagonist’s journey, it comes to symbolize strength, identity, and moral growth — a meaning far broader than its original derogatory connotation.
Q8. What is the difference between the author’s message and the objective message?
A8. The author’s message is what the writer intends to communicate through the work — their deliberate viewpoint on the theme. The objective message is the final conclusion that the reader draws from analysing their own response to the story AND the author’s implied message. The objective message may be broader than the author’s message because it is based on more profound historical experience — readers in different eras may discover meanings that the author never intended or foresaw.
Q9. Explain Burton’s three categories for reading literature critically.
A9. Robert Burton (1970) proposed three categories:
- Substance — concerns not only surface knowledge but the student’s perception of themes and ideas about human experience
- Mode — follows Frye’s five modes: mythic, romantic, high mimetic, low mimetic, and ironic (each identified with a specific literary epoch, reflecting decreasing levels of the hero’s power)
- Form — refers to genres and sub-genres, elements of structure (point of view, setting, dialogue), and devices (metaphor, symbol) common to more than one genre
Q10. List and explain the three abilities needed to study literature (Burton’s hierarchy).
A10.
- Imaginative Entry (Empathy) — the most fundamental; without it, the student is NOT reading literature. This involves emotionally entering the world of the text and identifying “correlative experience” — connecting the text to one’s own life.
- Perception of Meaning / Central Purpose — developing the method of hypothesis: forming ideas about what the text means and testing them. Some hypotheses are tested quickly; others only after completing the whole work.
- Perception of Artistic Unity & Significance — the highest level: seeing how all parts fit together into a unified whole and understanding the significance of that unity. These form a hierarchy — empathy is the prerequisite for perceiving meaning, which is the prerequisite for perceiving unity.
Q11. When must you cite a source? Why is citation important?
A11. You must cite when you: use someone else’s words, thoughts, or ideas; directly quote; paraphrase; reference an existing idea; reference another source; or when someone’s ideas have influenced your work. Citation is important because it (1) gives credit to original authors, (2) helps readers find more information, (3) strengthens your work with outside support, (4) distinguishes your ideas from sources (emphasizing your originality), and (5) protects you from charges of plagiarism.
Q12. Provide key facts about Homer and the Iliad.
A12. Homer (c. 8th century BCE) was a Greek poet who wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational works of Western literature. The Iliad is an epic poem in 24 books, written in dactylic hexameter, containing 15,693 lines. It is set towards the end of the Trojan War and depicts a fierce quarrel between King Agamemnon and warrior Achilles during the siege’s final weeks. Written in Homeric Greek (Epic Greek), it was likely transmitted orally before being written down. Plato said Homer “has taught Greece,” and it is often regarded as the first substantial piece of European literature.
Q13. Who was Shakespeare? Outline the three phases of his literary career.
A13. William Shakespeare (1564–1616) was an English playwright, poet, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language. His career had three phases: (1) Early (~1589–1600): primarily comedies and histories (A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Henry V); (2) Middle (~1600–1608): mainly tragedies — Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, all considered among the finest works in English; (3) Late (~1608–1613): tragicomedies/romances (The Tempest, The Winter’s Tale), often with themes of forgiveness and reconciliation. His total output includes ~39 plays, 154 sonnets, and 3 long narrative poems.
Long Answer / Essay Questions
Q14. “Literary texts convey meaning in ways which go far beyond the mere literal or surface level of signification.” Discuss, with reference to the techniques literature uses to convey its messages.
A14. Literary texts distinguish themselves from other forms of writing by operating not through direct statement but through indirect allusion, understatement, implication, and even concealment. Literature often veils the “truth” it seeks to convey, endowing it with mystery and transcendental value.
The techniques used include: (1) Implication — suggestions not expressed directly but understood through parallelism, contrast, recurrence, symbols, and plot arrangement. (2) Parallelism — events at the beginning and end of a story may mirror each other, implying cyclical patterns or unchanging conditions (e.g., Dreiser’s An American Tragedy). (3) Recurrence — repeated words, devices, or emotionally coloured language that accumulate special semantic weight. (4) Symbol — artistic details repeated and associated with broader abstract concepts become symbolic (e.g., the Green Light in Gatsby). (5) Presupposition — stories beginning where certain things are taken for granted, requiring the reader to infer background. (6) The Title — first element caught by the eye, but understood only retrospectively (e.g., The Scarlet Letter transforms from shame to strength).
Literature functions like subliminal persuasion — constructing emotionally charged, seemingly realistic situations that lead readers to an “unavoidable but always unstated” moral conclusion. Meaning must be determined through a complete evaluation of rhetoric, figures of speech, images, symbols, allusions, connotations, suggestions, and implications of the entire text.
Q15. Discuss Frye’s five modes of literature. How does the changing status of the hero reflect broader literary and historical trends?
A15. Northrop Frye’s five modes represent a historical progression of literary types defined by the hero’s relationship to other characters and the environment:
(1) Mythic Mode: The hero is a divine being, superior in kind (not just degree) to everyone — this is the mode of myths and sacred texts (Greek gods, Hindu epics). It reflects an era when humans understood the world through religion and divine narratives.
(2) Romantic Mode: The hero is extraordinary but still human — superior in degree to others and the environment. This is the mode of medieval romances and fairy tales (King Arthur, Beowulf). It reflects a feudal society that revered noble warriors and superhuman feats.
(3) High Mimetic Mode: The hero is a leader among ordinary people — superior in degree to others but not to the environment. This is the mode of Renaissance tragedy and epic (Shakespeare’s kings). It reflects the Renaissance focus on individual greatness within human limits.
(4) Low Mimetic Mode: The hero is on the same level as the reader — one of us. This is the mode of the realistic novel and comedy (Austen, Dickens). It reflects the democratic, bourgeois society of the 18th–19th centuries.
(5) Ironic Mode: The hero is inferior to the reader — we look down on scenes of frustration and absurdity (Kafka, Beckett). It reflects the modern/postmodern era of disillusionment, existential crisis, and the breakdown of traditional heroism.
The progression from divine hero to anti-hero mirrors broader historical trends: the decline of religious authority, the rise of individualism, the growth of democracy and egalitarianism, and the modern experience of alienation and meaninglessness.
Q16. “Meaning in literature is something that needs to be determined not merely on the basis of face value understanding.” Elaborate with examples of how implication, symbol, and parallelism work in conveying literary meaning.
A16. Literature communicates at multiple levels simultaneously — what appears on the surface is rarely the full story. Three key techniques illustrate this:
Implication works through suggestions that are understood without being directly stated. When a story constructs emotionally charged situations leading to an unstated conclusion, readers arrive at the “message” naturally. For instance, Animal Farm never explicitly says “totalitarian regimes are oppressive” — the reader draws this conclusion from the narrative.
Symbol develops when a concrete detail, through repetition and association, comes to represent an abstract concept beyond its literal meaning. In Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, the letter “A” transforms from a mark of shame (adultery) into a symbol of the protagonist’s strength and moral identity. In Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock symbolizes unattainable dreams and the American Dream’s ultimate emptiness.
Parallelism invites comparison between corresponding elements. In Dreiser’s An American Tragedy, the closing scene mirrors the opening — this circling back implies that nothing has fundamentally changed, that the cycle of aspiration and destruction continues. The parallel structure carries the author’s message without any explicit statement.
These techniques show that literary meaning exists in the fabric of the work’s devices, not in any single sentence. It requires complete evaluation of the text’s rhetoric, imagery, symbols, allusions, and structural patterns — making reading literature a fundamentally active, analytical process rather than passive reception.